Historical Context

José María Arguedas, born on January 18, 1911 in Andahuaylas, Peru was a novelist, short-story writer, poet, and ethnologist who wrote in both Spanish and Quechua. His mother died when he was two years old and his father was a lawyer who was very absent from his life. He was left in the care of his father’s new wife and children, who he did not get along with, so he spent most of his time with the family’s servants. His upbringing was greatly influenced by these Quechua Indian servants. He learned to speak Quechua before Spanish and was also familiar with Quechua music and customs. He eventually acquainted himself with the dominant Spanish culture and language as a literary and intellectual means of expression. José María Arguedas used his knowledge and familiarity of both cultures and languages to write about the inequalities and conflicts between Spanish descendants and native people. His works reflect the social issues of early 20th century Peru, which include the marginalization of Indians by elite upper class people of Western cultures. He worked as a teacher and a civil servant to promote native Peruvian culture. He suffered from depression and other psychological issues, and ended up taking his own life in 1969. He is now recognized as one of the most prominent writers of Peru. 

When José María Arguedas started his literary career, the novels written in Peru were part of the Indigenista movement. The Indigenists were intellectuals and artists of nonindigenous backgrounds that were committed to unraveling the realities of Indigenous populations with the intentions of empowering them and revealing the inequalities and injustices that they faced. This literary movement of indigenismo was pioneered by the Peruvian writer José Carlos Mariátegui with the hopes of inspiring Indigenous peoples to eventually write about their own experiences. (Zegarra, 49). José María Arguedas explained his literary project and reflected on the challenges of the movement in the essay “The Novel and the Problem of Literary Expression in Peru.” He aimed to create an authentic literary expression representative of the Peruvian Andes and its Quechua-speaking indigenous populations, beyond the conventions of the Indigenist movement of his time. He wanted to use Spanish to express the authenticity of the indigenous Quechua-speaking world. As someone who grew up alongside the Indians, he felt that previous Indigenist novels were inaccurate and unable to capture the essence of their experiences. Arguedas stated that using conventional ‘literary’ Spanish was inadequate for what he was trying to portray, and he realized that he had to transform and modify the Spanish language into his own means of expression. In order to accurately interpret the struggles and experiences of the Indian community, Arguedas not only created a special Spanish language for the Indigenous people in his stories, but he also made sure to maintain the Quechua soul in his Spanish writing. 

“Quechuañol”

This short story includes a linguistic phenomenon similar to Spanglish. In Arguedas’ world, the characters combine Spanish with Quechua and create words with unique meanings and emotion. Mak’tillo means ‘young man’: the root of the word is Quechua (mak’ta) and the suffix is Spanish (tillo). Words such as Niñucha function in an inverted manner: the root is Spanish (niño) and the suffix is Quechua. Highlanders of the Andes mountains speak Spanish with the foundation of Quechua grammar. It is apparent in their sentence structures, which follow the rules of Quechua syntax. Andean native languages are not taught in school, so the speakers are usually not aware of their usage of such patterns when speaking Spanish. Arguedas utilized the language and speech that the Quechua speakers were mocked for in order to humanize them and transmit to the Spanish reader compassion for the oppressed. For instance, one of the cowboys says, full of fear of Señora Grimalda: “En K’ello K’ello, empujando mulas de Don Garayar,” which represents a phrase in fragmented or incomplete Spanish. The author did not just directly translate the the words of his Andean characters or settle for a caricature of their experiences.; he showed that they represent real people, with their own perceptions and worldview just like everybody else. This is evident when the Indians on Señora Grimalda’s ranch decide to name the calf “Pringo,” instead of “Misti”, because “Pringo,” feels more Indian while “Misti” is a term used to refer to the white landlords and owners. In this way the Indians made the calf one of their own (they are adopting it with that name) and recalled the oppression of the white lords. 

Themes

Relationship between Humans and Animals:

In this short story, humans and animals have a complex yet loving relationship. The people that live and work on the ranch, including the owner, Señora Grimalda, and even the people of the town, love the animals around them. The animals served real purposes for the humans, but some received special attention because they are favored. Ene was Señora Grimalda’s favorite cow. Throughout the story, Señora Grimalda is depicted caressing Ene and calling out to her with affection. Ene was the favorite because not only did she produce the most milk, but she also gave birth to many strong and useful calves, such as Pringo. Pringo was loved by everyone on the farm and even in the town, mostly because of his unique coloring. His completely white body prompted them to even give him a special name. These working animals were almost treated like pets. When Pringo died, Señora Grimalda and her workers were devastated. The overseer ended up preserving Pringo’s hide to keep Ene happy so that she will continue to produce milk, but he also did it to pay homage to the dear calf. This story shows that for the people in this culture, it is okay for animals to serve a purpose, but you can also love them and show them affection. According to Arguedas, Indians were very grateful towards the things that provide for them, such as animals: cows give them milk, donkeys provide transportation, etc. Without the possession of animals nor land, a person is described as a huak’cho, or an orphan, who lacks material wealth but also suffers from loneliness, abandonment, and has no one to turn to (López Baralt 203). 

Social Hierarchies and Emotions:

There is an evident socioeconomic hierarchy in this story that reflects life on the haciendas in the Andes. As a misti, Señora Grimalda is at the top of the food chain as the owner of the ranch. She controls all the operations and everyone on the ranch obeys her. Her workers are of Quechua-speaking indigenous descent as evident from their broken Spanish. They fear her and have lots of respect for her, yet they refer to her and address her with very affectionate and endearing names, such as mamitay and mamaya. They see her as an authoritative mother figure. Señora Grimalda’s workers are referred to as concertados. Concertados are Indians who work and live with a rich a white owner on their property in exchange for mostly food and clothing. Concertados almost owe their lives to their mistress. Señora Grimalda is stern with her workers and treats them in a patronizing way, yet the mistress of the ranch also has a special affection towards the Indians and their world. She shares part of their culture by adopting their Quechua language in endearing ways.

Nature Violence and the Cycle of Life:

Nature is a very prominent theme in this short story, and alongside it, concepts of death and violence. As the title indicates, the story takes place on a ranch near a great ravine. The humans and their animals are familiar with the terrain, yet they cannot control the forces of nature nor death. The violence of Pringo’s death did not provoke any initial reaction besides the fear that the cowboys felt towards the possible wrath of their mistress. It can be assumed that Pringo wasn’t the first calf to have fallen to the steep cliffs of the ravine, but he was a special calf so Señora Grimalda and the people on her ranch were very saddened by his death. The same impassiveness of the humans can be said about the removal of Pringo’s hide. The overseer had come up with a solution to keep Ene and the humans that love Pringo happy. In this world, nature is a force that is recognized and respected, and things such as violence and death are inevitable. 

Works Cited

Arguedas, José María. “The Novel and the Problem of Literary Expression in Peru.” Yawar Fiesta, translated by Frances Horning Barraclough, University of Texas Press, 1985, pp. xiii-xxi.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "José María Arguedas". Encyclopedia Britannica, 13 Feb. 2024, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-Maria-Arguedas. 

Gale Contextual Encyclopedia of World Literature. "Arguedas, José María”. Encyclopedia.com. 14 Jun. 2024 https://www.encyclopedia.com. 

Lopez-Baralt, Mercedes. “Wakcha, Pachakuti y Tinku: Tres Llaves Andinas Para Acceder a La Escritura de Arguedas.” Las Cartas de Arguedas, edited by John V. Murra and Mercedes Lopez-Baralt, Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru, 1996, pp. 299-330.

The Modern Novel, “José María Arguedas.” 9 Sept. 2020, www.themodernnovel.org/americas/latin-america/peru/jose-maria-arguedas/. 

Zegarra, Chrystian. “Andes.” The Encyclopedia of the Novel, edited by Peter Melville Logan, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2011, pp. 47-49. 

"THE RAVINE" ("EL BARRANCO," PERU, 1939) BY JOSÉ MARÍA ARGUEDAS

TRANSLATED BY THAO BUI, FERNANDO RODRIGUEZ-MANSILLA

ENGLISH:

In the ravine of K’ello-k’ello Don Garayar’s troop of horses collided with the bull calves of Señora Grimalda. Nicacha and Pablucha (1) shouted from the entrance of the ravine:

“Sujetaychis! Sujetaychis!”(2) 

But the herd stampeded. On the path that crosses the ravine, the calves stirred, crying. 

“Sujetaychis!” The mak’tillos (3), Nicacha and Pablucha, climbed up the path, clawing at the ground. 

The mules rallied on the path. Huffing through their snouts, they quickly entered the ravine. The leaders of the pack were stampeding at the front. Choking on dust, the calves shifted towards the hill; some were able to turn and ran through the herd. Don Garayar’s Nasca mule (4) raised its two legs and pounded its hooves on Pringo’s forehead. Pringo fell into the ravine, bounced several times between the crags, and reached the bottom of the abyss. Spewing blood, he died at the bank of the stream. 

The herd continued into the ravine, kicking up dust. 

“Behind us, only one has died! It should have screamed so much louder!” Don Garayar’s muleteer said while crouched at the edge of the path to look down the ravine. 

“Ay Señorcito! The señora will whip us! She will surely hang us in the granary!” 

“Pringulchallaya! Pringucha!” (5)

Looking down the ravine, the  mak’tillos were calling out to the dead calf.

Ene, the mother of Pringo, was Señora Grimalda’s most productive dairy cow; they would milk a full bucket from her everyday. They called her Ene because, on her black back, she had a white spot in the shape of the letter N. Ene was tall and robust; she had already given the mistress several large bull calves and several heifer calves. The mistress would watch her happily everyday:

“That’s my cow! My mamacha! (6)

She was caressing her, patting her on the neck. 

This time, Ene had a calf called Pringo (7). The farm girl gave him that name from the very first day. She named him “Pringo” because he was entirely white. The overseer wanted to call him “Misti” (8) because he was the finest and largest of all the calves of his age. 

“He looks like a foreigner.” the overseer used to say.

But all of Señora Grimalda’s servants (9), the cowboys, and the people of the town called him “Pringo.” It’s a very endearing name, and feels more Indian, which is why it stayed. 

The cowboys entered the señora’s house in tears. Señora Grimalda went out into the corridor to find out what was going on. The cowboys climbed up the steps, stumbling, and kneeled on the floor of the corridor. Without saying anything yet, they kissed their mistress's clothes. They covered their faces with her skirt, whining and choking on their saliva and tears. 

“Mamitay!”

“We couldn’t do anything! Mamitay!”

Señora Grimalda yelled,  pushing the young men away with her feet. 

“Damn it! What’s going on?”

“Pringo, um, Mamitay. At K’ello-k’ello, Don Garayar’s mules pushing.”

“Pringo, um! Already dying, Mamitay!”

Fighting with each other the two cowboys, one besting the other, reached out and embraced Señora Grimalda’s feet; they wanted to kiss the feet of their mistress.

“Oh my God! My dear little calf! Santusa, Federico, Antonio…!”

She went down the steps and called for her servants from the courtyard.

“Run to K’ello-k’ello! Pringo has fallen from a cliff! What are those good-for-nothings doing, just standing there?! Go go go!”

The cowboys jumped down the steps and went into the corridor, dragging their ponchos. All of the mistress’s people followed after them. 

They brought Pringo, carefully holding him. He was laid out on a poncho in the corridor. Señora Grimalda cried for a long time, kneeling next to the dead calf. But the cowgirl and the mak’tillos cried all day long, until the sun set.

“My child! Pringuchallaya!” 

“Ay little one, súmak’wawacha! (10)

“Súmak’wawacha!” 

The overseer cut open the carcass with his large knife, and was removing the hide. He plunged his fists into the flesh to separate the skin while the farm girl and the mak’tillos kept calling out:

“Niñucha! Oh why!”

“Oh why, súmak’wawacha!”

Early the next day, Ene would come down the hill, mooing on the path. She would come as usual, guiding the other dairy cows. She would first call out from the corridor. At that time, milk would already be dripping from her swollen nipples.

However, the overseer gave some advice to Señora Grimalda.

“Like this I have done also, Mama, on my farm in the Puna (11).” he said. 

And the señora agreed.

At the break of dawn, Don Fermín, the overseer, hammered two stakes into the cow milking stanchion, and on the stakes, a branch of an alder tree. After, he brought Pringo’s hide, and laid it out on the branch, stretching it and tightening the edges with nails to the ground. 

At sunrise, the dairy cows were already in the alley calling for their offspring. Ene would stop in front of the corridor. From there she would moo relentlessly until the door was opened for her. Still bellowing she would pass the yard and enter into the milking corral. 

That morning, Ene arrived in a hurry. Rubbing her muzzle against the walls of the corridor, she called for her Pringo. Don Fermín himself opened the door and the cow ran through the courtyard. The mistress had already gotten up, and was sitting on the steps of the corridor.

Ene entered the milking corral. Craning her neck, she mooed slowly, approaching her Pringo. Like every morning, she began to groom him. She would give him a big lick, her rough tongue marking the hide of the calf. The farm girl tied her well; to start, she milked her a bit to wet her nipples. The milk rattled the bucket loudly. 

“Mamaya! There it is, mamaya!” Pablucha was calling out to the señora as he ran from the corral to the courtyard.

The mistress entered the corral and saw her cow. She was licking Pringo’s hide, looking at it calmly with sweet eyes. 

So it went, every morning, until the farm girl and the overseer were tired of fastening and unfastening Pringo’s hide. When Ene’s milk began to dry up, they would just toss little Pringo’s hide onto a pile of rocks at the foot of the edge of the corral. The cow would run to the end of the corral, searching for her son. She would stop by the railing, looking at her dear calf’s hide. Every morning she would clean Pringo’s hide with her tongue. And the farm girl would milk her to the very last drop.

Like all cows, Ene, too, would begin to ruminate after milking. Then, she would lay down on the ground, next to Pringo’s dry hide, and would carry on, with her eyes half-closed. Meanwhile, the high sun would clear the clouds, intensely illuminating and warming the great ravine. 

Endnotes

1. Nicacha and Pablucha: the suffix -cha in Quechua expresses affection by adding diminutive suffixes to words. In standard Spanish, the names of these boys would be Nicolas/Nicanor and Pablo. The text includes more examples of this use referring to both humans and animals. The word niñucha is also used later in the story and mixes -cha with the Spanish word ‘niño’ which means ‘boy.’
2. The original text provides the Spanish translation, sujetad, which means ‘hold on.’
3. According to the glossary of Frances Horning Barraclough’s translation of José María Arguedas’s Yawar Fiesta, mak’ta means ‘young man’. Mak’tillos uses the Quechua word mak’ta and the Spanish diminutive suffix -illo. Mak’tillos means ‘young men.’ (Horning Barraclough 197)
4. A mule from the Nasca Province in the Ica Region of Peru. 
5. Pringulchallaya means ‘my little Pringo.’ Pringucha is ‘little Pringo’ or, metaphorically, ‘my beloved Pringo.’ 
6. Mamacha: this word is formed using the Spanish word mamá with the Quechua suffix -cha. The owner of the ranch uses it to express affection to her favorite cow. Similarly, the servants use the words mamitay and mamaya to address the owner, Señora Grimalda, with devotion and respect. 
7. Pringo: ‘Pringo’ in Spanish means a drop of liquid. Pringo the calf is entirely white, and everyone calls him ‘Pringo’ because he is like a drop of milk. 
8. Misti: In Quechua, misti means ‘white.’ It is used by Indigenous populations to describe people of Western or near-Western culture in upper social classes that have dominated the region since colonial times. (Horning Barraclough, 197)
9. In the original concertados. Arguedas defined concertados as “Indians who have left their communities; they are lost souls who serve their misti [lord] all their lives in his house, receiving in exchange food, clothing, and a small annual salary” (Horning Barraclough 195).
10. The original text provides the Spanish translation of Súmak’wawacha: “criatura hermosa”. In Quechua, wawacha means ‘little baby,’ and súmak means ‘beautiful’. A straight translation of the Quechua into English would be ‘beautiful little baby.’
11. Puna: The Central Andean Puna ecoregion is a high elevation montane grassland that stretches from southern Peru, through Bolivia, and into northern Argentina. This region is an important area for cultivating certain species of fauna and flora. The landscape of the puna is mountainous, with snow-capped peaks, mountain pastures, high lakes, plateaus, and valleys. It exists between the altitudinal range of 3200-6600m. https://www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/central-andean-puna/#:~:text=The%20Central%20Andean%20Puna%20ecoregion,of%20both%20flora%20and%20fauna.
    

SPANISH

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TRANSLATORS' NOTE - THAO BUI, FERNANDO RODRIGUEZ-MANSILLA

El Barranco has not been translated into English since its publication in 1939. This text by José María Arguedas reflects the Quechua-speaking world of 20th century Peru and provides insight on the social hierarchy and master-servant relationships that existed during that time. We are maintaining several aspects of the original story in this translation, including the Quechua and the “Quechuañol,” as well as the courtesy titles of señora and don. We found that directly translating the Quechua and the “Quechuañol “ would not serve justice to either language. The same can be said for the titles señora and don which are characteristic of the Spanish language. In this story, señora and mistress are used interchangeably and refer to the owner of the ranch, Señora Grimalda. Both señora and don are titles that indicate social distinction and respect. We decided to keep these terms in my translation in order to keep the Latin American origin and authenticity of the original text. We would also like to mention that Frances Horning Barraclough’s Glossary in her translation of Yawar Fiesta by José María Arguedas served very useful for our understanding of the Quechua in this story, as well as many other sources listed below. Special thanks go to Sybila Arredondo de Arguedas and Carolina Tellier for allowing us to translate this text. 

CITATION

Bui, Thao, Rodriguez-Mansilla, Fernando, Translators, "The Ravine, (El Barranco, Peru,1939) by José María Arguedas," Spanish and Hispanic Studies Digital Gallery at HWS, Summer, 2024

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.